How can assessment be improved in zimbabwean schools

Finally, when teachers do not have time or effective assessment strategies, they generally resort to testing the way they themselves were assessed, too often ineffectively Guskey, ; Stiggins, On occasion, teachers unintentionally engage in unfair assessment practice. Consequently, there is no efficient use of assessment to ensure effective teaching and learning. However, teachers are not particularly good judges of their own abilities or knowledge in test construction Boothroyd et al.

Teachers assessment practices are directly related to instruction and learner learning Elkader, According to Good and Brophy , teachers perceptions of assessment modify procedures teachers use for lesson planning, delivery, instruction and teacher interaction throughout the school term.

There has been a robust measurement through questionnaires on teacher conceptions on assessment Brown , ; Hargreaves , but one weakness in this body of research is the lack of quality data. Brown et. Studies have shown that, to a certain degree, teachers are satisfied with their classroom assessment practices Yildrin, Teachers influence their classroom practices Thompson, Perceptions can lead a teacher to interact with learners in a unique manner Gutierrez, Teachers, who view assessment as a useful means of gathering data upon which to base their decisions about learning and their teaching, attempt to make assessment an integral part of teaching.

They emphasise formative rather than summative assessment, frequently use informal means of assessment; encourage learners to take risks and reward academic effort as well as good results. They tend to take responsibility for learning that takes place in the classroom. This may occur directly by giving learners useful feedback and by using effective peer and self-assessment practices or indirectly through teacher modifications of instruction to better suit diagnosed learner needs.

This kind of information can be reported to the community and stakeholders like other schools and employers. To evolve within new assessment practices, it of paramount importance for teachers to embed their perceptions into the following emerging models of assessment. These new conceptions offer a new lens to understand the multifaceted nature of assessment.

In Canada, Gorf , advocated for assessment of learning summative , assessment for learning formative and assessment as learning the assessment is not graded but acts as a meta-cognitive learning tool.

The latter is a subject of assessment for learning and occurs when learners personally monitor what they are learning and use the feedback from this monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations or even major changes in what they understand.

According to Kanyongo the primary level is a seven-year cycle and the official entry age is six years. It runs from Grade 1 through to Grade 7. Prior to Grade 1, children enroll in the early childhood education and care pre- school.

The teacher learner ratio is one to 30 or 40, though sometimes it can be higher than that. Kanyongo did not mention the other subjects that are not examined at grade seven levels namely, Art, Music and Physical education.

Assessment in primary school is done after each topic during the term. The second type of assessment is mid-term assessment when all taught topics are assessed.

The final form of assessment is the end of cycle assessment which takes place at Grade seven. Tests and examinations are common instruments of assessment and evaluation. The assessment procedures and policies are fixed in most schools. The Zimbabwe Examinations Council is responsible for decisions on assessment, objectives, content on public examinations and the awarding of end of cycle examinations.

Individual teachers in the primary school do post-assessment remediation. In some schools, the last two weeks of the term are used for revising those areas where pupils would not have done well.

The assessment procedures and policies are fixed in most institutions. The Zimbabwe School Examinations Council is responsible for decisions on assessment objectives and content of public examinations, assessment and the awarding of end-of- cycle grades.

In this area it is necessary to come up with assessment techniques that strike a balance between the affective and cognitive domains. New examination techniques should match new curricula thrusts. When assessment and instruction work in tandem, improvement of learner achievement is likely to occur. Stiggins concurred and states that we are seeing unacceptably low levels of assessment literacy among practising teachers and administrators in our schools.

He continues by stating that this assessment illiteracy has resulted in inaccurate assessment of learners, causing them to fail to reach their full potential. Stiggins has argued that test and measurement courses have not met the day-to-day assessment needs of teachers. A survey by Volante on Assessment for Learning in Schools: Implication for Transforming Classroom Practice indicated that there is an over-emphasis on assessment of learning i. A range of assessments particularly those that emphasise traditional paper and pencil summative measures, are over-emphasised within the contemporary schools Popham, ; Stiggins, The national examination tended to shift focus of classroom assessment and away from authentic formative practice techniques closely aligned to the national examination Stiggins, Teachers feel compelled to spend time preparing their learners to master the content covered in the national examination and to coach them on test taking strategies.

Formative assessment helps learners to become aware of any gaps that exist between the desired goal and their current knowledge; understanding or skills and guides them through actions necessary to obtain the goal Sadle, They continue to argue that, the quality of effectiveness of schools and teachers are judged by the performance of their learners and no serious effort is being made by the stakeholders to ensure that Nigerian teachers develop the capacity to effectively employ assessment for the improvement of their teaching and the learning of their learners.

Teachers sacrifice learning for drilling learners in things that they will be held accountable Dhindsa et. According to Popham Teachers drill their learners relentlessly of types of test items contained in the particular high stakes test their learners must pass. Such repetitions of instructional activities tend to deaden learner genuine interest in learning.

All the excitement and intellectual vibrancy that learners might encounter during a really interesting lesson are driven out by tedious, test-fostering series of drills….

Drilling can help learners develop low-cognitive skills and teach them to recite memorized information. Furthermore this competitive culture of schools may be an obstacle to learning especially when linked to beliefs in the fixed nature of ability. Staff members at a negatively labeled school are certain to feel awful about the way they have been identified Popham, Teacher education courses appear to offer little exposure to assessment for professional preparation of teachers.

Teacher programmes fail to provide the literacy required for fulfilling the tenets of assessment Chappuis, Furthermore, in programmes that do include assessment courses, assessment is usually treated as a foundational course focused on a set of generalisable concepts and skills. As Anderson et. Classroom teachers therefore need a educationprogramme in order to be effective assessors of their learners and offer focused teaching rather than where summative reporting dominated.

This makes it difficult for teachers to observe learners on a one to one basis. As a consequence of these developments, teacher report on learner progress is less than wholesome, as it is predominantly based on classroom tests.

Many of the tests they develop are found wanting in quality, as they lack originality of style, clarity of language and abilities to be tested. The Kenya National Examinations Council finally concluded that a combination of class size, teachers inability to develop suitable assessment instruments and an endemic shortage of suitable and sufficient educational resources explain why teachers are unable to effectively assess their pupils and collect information that would help them improve teaching.

The rationale and the different forms of assessment were also discussed. Quality assessments have validity, reliability and usability. Currently, the world over, there are emerging models of assessment which offer a new lens on how assessment can be perceived; namely, assessment for, of, and as learning. However, the Zimbabwean assessment procedures indicate that they are highly summative assessment of learning.

Finally it has been revealed that teachers encounter different problems in the assessment of pupils. The next chapter will discuss the research methodology. An attempt to define assessment was made; the rationale for assessment and the different forms of assessment were highlighted.

Literature on teacher competencies, perceptions, emerging models to assessment, evolution of assessment and assessment paradigms was exposed. This chapter is concerned with the research methodology and the research design used for the study. It begins with a discussion of the research paradigm, which is the lens to this study, followed by a description of the research design and data collection procedures. The issues regarding trustworthiness and ethical considerations will also be discussed.

Finally, the chapter spells out how data gathered were processed, analysed and interpreted. The paradigm within which we work determines what we look for, the way which we construe what we observe and how we solve emerging problems Gipps, A qualitative research paradigm was preferred in this study.

Qualitative research uses naturalistic paradigms that help to understand phenomena in context-specific settings, such as "real world setting, where the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest" Patton, This research specifically adopted an interpretive and constructivist qualitative research paradigm.

Schwandt, argues that, These persuasions share the goal of understanding the complex world of lived experiences from the point of view of those who live in it. The world of lived reality and situations specific meanings that constitute the general object of investigation is thought to be constructed by social actors.

This tied with the focus of the research as its purpose was to gain a deep level of understanding of the perceptions of specific teachers on problems of assessments in the primary schools. Interpretive research attempts to understand phenomena through meanings that people assign to them Trauth, The interpretive paradigms pointed to the use of qualitative research methods to collecting and analysing data.

The researcher used open-ended questions and listened carefully to what the teachers said about the problems they faced in assessment. In this research the interpretive research was well suited for giving a voice to teachers as they gave their views to the situation on the ground. Secondly, interpretive research focuses on the contexts in which people live and work in order to understand the historical and cultural settings of the participants.

Observation takes place in real world settings, in places and under conditions that are comfortable and familiar to the participants Patton, Marshall and Rossman cited in Creswell suggest that this entails immersion in the everyday life of the setting chosen for the study.

The advantages of doing qualitative research on assessment include Conger, ; Bryman et. Talking to the teachers in-depth and allowing them to tell their own stories provided the researcher with their worldview rather than that of the researcher. Observations were also carried out during the course of normal life. Thirdly, qualitative research uses one or more strategies of inquiry as a guide for procedures. In this study, the researcher used observations, focus groups, individual interviews and document analysis as sources of data.

This enabled the researcher to gain an understanding of the perceptions, values, actions and concerns of the teachers under study. Multiple sources allowed for triangulation.

Yin also suggested using multiple sources of evidence as a way to ensure construct validity. Triangulation is the use of various methods in collecting data. In this study, triangulation was implemented during data collection and analysis.

The researcher systematically reflected on who she was in the inquiry and was sensitive to personal biography and how it shaped the study. Qualitative researchers seek to understand the context or setting through visiting this context and gathering information personally. In this particular research, the researcher visited the schools to collect data by way of individual interviews, focus group observations and document analysis.

Through interviews, rich descriptions of problems faced by teachers, influenced by their unique circumstances were generated. Theory are data driven and emerges as part of the research process evolving from the data as they are collected Keyton, The researcher developed a setting, analysed the data in themes and finally interpreted their meaning, stating lessons learned. The following is a summary of the characteristics of qualitative research as presented by various researchers.

This took precedence over eliciting data that could be generalised to other geographical locations, therefore suited for an interpretive research paradigm with its emphasis on experience and interpretation.

The specific type of case study used here was a single case design with embedded units of analysis Yin A single case study allowed the researcher to obtain a wealth of information about the assessment problems in Gweru District Schools. Furthermore Gweru District is representative to other areas in Zimbabwe because it constitutes all school types such as, urban, rural, government and private.

The study of more than one case dilutes the overall analysis; the more the cases any individual studies, the greater the lack of depth in any single case Coolican, Hartley also defines a case study as … a heterogeneous activity covering a range of research methods and techniques, a range of coverage from single case study through carefully matched pairs up to multiple cases , varied levels of analysis individuals, groups, organizations, organizational fields or social policies , and differing lengths and levels of involvement in organizational functioning.

The case study is the ideal method or design when a holistic in- depth investigation is needed Tellis, As an interpretive, inductive form of research, the case explores the details and meanings of experience; the richness of case studies is related to the amount of detail and conceptualization that is possible when only one or a small number of focal cases are analyzed TESOL Quarterly, It was for this reason that the case study was considered the most appropriate because the researcher was able to go deeper into the assessment problems teachers encountered in schools.

Accessing participants in their natural setting allowed the researcher to study how teachers manage assessment in the busy contexts of their everyday teaching. This further helped the researcher to interpret the observations.

The case study uses a variety of data gathering methods that lead to the understanding of the case and answers to the research questions Krauss, In this research multiple sites were also used to collect data.

These included different urban and rural schools which were involved in document observation, interviews and focus groups. Multiple sources of data allowed for triangulation. Triangulation also arises from the ethical need to confirm validity of the research process Tellis, In the case study this can be done by using multiple sources of data Yin, Interviews enabled the researcher to probe and verify information from other data sources.

Some scholars, however, have argued that good case studies appeal to the capacity of the reader for naturalistic generalisation Stake, , Thus readers recognise aspects of their own experience and intuitively generalise from the case.

The hallmark of the case study design lies in its strength as a tool for in-depth investigation of phenomena under study. Indeed, the case study's unique strength is "its ability to deal with a full variety of evidence—documents, artifacts, interviews, and observations" Yin, a All schools in Zimbabwe do classroom assessment. The researcher determined that only Gweru District Primary schools were studied because they represent all schools in Zimbabwe which include urban, rural, and private and government.

Further boundaries of the study included Grades three to seven because these junior grades have the same assessment procedures. The researcher considered multiple sources of data for this study and selected document examination; the gathering and study of tests set in the schools and test record books for grade threes to grade sevens.

The researcher conducted open- ended interviews with teachers, head teachers of each school, college lecturers, ZIMSEC officers and Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture officers using an interview protocol to guide the researcher during the interview process so that uniformity and consistency of data could be enhanced see appendix The researcher also employed direct observations as a tool.

The researcher visited the grades three to seven to observe the assessment methods used and the availability of resources. Furthermore, all the other issues observed that were in line with the research question were probed during the interviews. Finally, the researcher carried out some focus group discussions on assessment problems that were faced by teachers see paragraph, 3.

Focus groups enabled the researcher to collect information quickly. Grounded theory is a qualitative research design in which the inquiry generates a general explanation of a process of action or interaction shaped by the views of a large number of participants Strass Corbin, In this research analysis took place during data collection period and was thoroughly intergrated into all aspects of it including an analysis of every interview and observation as they were given.

In this way each step of the data collection fed into the analysis. Since data to be collected were to be found in documents, the researcher stated her intention to request for the documents. She took field notes for both interviews and observation. The interviews were also recorded using a tape recorder. At the end of each day the interview and field notes were transcribed. Focus group discussions were also transcribed after every discussion. Data were coded and entered into the data base so that it could be used independently as well as integrated when the case study progressed to a point of case examination of the data.

A comprehensive purposive sampling was adopted in this study. In purposive sampling, the researcher seeks individuals and sites that can best supply relevant information needed to answer the research questions raised Creswell Patton contends that, the logic and power of purposeful sampling derive from the emphasis of in-depth understanding.

The researcher included only Grades 3 to 7 of Gweru District schools in the study. It was difficult to visit all the ninety-two 92 schools in Gweru District; as such quota sampling was used to select 3 former Group A schools and 3 former Group B schools in Gweru urban.

Six rural schools were purposefully selected. The researcher selected grade three to seven teachers because they have similar assessment procedures.

All the head teachers of the sampled schools were part of the sample. Grades 3 to 7 teachers were purposefully selected from each school to constitute eight 8 focus groups.

Four focus groups were from urban schools while four others were from rural schools. Focus groups helped the researcher to understand the perceptions and behaviour of respondents. The study used the multiple measure instruments, that is, triangulation and mixed methods to establish validity and reduce uncertainty of interpretation.

The most useful ways of gathering these forms of data are participant observation, in-depth interviews, group interviews, and the collection of relevant documents. Because of the nature of this type of research, investigations were connected to methods such as in-depth interviewing, participant observation and the collecting of relevant documents which the researcher adopted and adapted in this research. An interview is a conversation with a purpose of gathering information Berg, Further, as Patton noted, face-to-face interviews are, This means being interested in what people have to say.

You must yourself believe that the thoughts and experiences of the people being interviewed are worth knowing. In short, you must have the utmost respect for these persons who are willing to share with you some of their time to help you understand their world. Individual interviews enabled the participants to express unique or controversial perspectives without fear of censure or, indeed, with complete confidentiality, unlike the focus group interview Cresswell, In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to make sure that those relevant areas were covered concerning assessment problems in the schools.

Wanden considers that the guided interview is useful as it allows for in-depth probing while permitting the interviewer to keep the interview within the parameters traced out by the aim of the study.

The interviewer should always be in control of a conversation and be able to guide and bend to the service of their research interest Palmer, In-depth interviews also allow for probing and follow up questions Patton The purpose for probing is to deepen the response to the question, to increase the richness being obtained, and to give cue to the interviewer about the level of response that is desired Berry, In-depth interviews were also characterised by open-ended questions.

The open- ended questions enabled the researcher to probe further and allowed the informants to qualify their responses.

Furthermore, in-depth interviews allowed participants to express their views freely without being restricted by predetermined responses. Findings made during document analysis, focus groups and observation were also probed in order to get an in-depth meaning of issues discussed.

Open-ended questions have the disadvantage of collecting worthless and irrelevant information as well as data that are not standardised, thus making it difficult when it comes to analysis. The interview however, enabled the researcher to probe further into the perceptions of teachers, head teachers, Teachers college lecturers, ZIMSEC officers and Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture officers into the assessment problems as faced by primary school teachers.

The use of face-to-face interviews provided for a different conversation to that of focus group in providing the richness of individuality and freedom to describe a unique life-view without influence from others and negotiation with a group. School policies pertaining to assessment were studied. Schram identifies advantages of using document analysis. Firstly documents can be accessed at a time convenient to the researcher at a minimum cost.

Secondly documents tend to contain data that are thoughtful because adequate time and care is given to compile them. In spite of this the researcher was contented with the limitations associated with document analysis. Triangulation of data collection techniques enabled the researcher to verify the data collected from documents. Powell et. Focus groups can be thought of as collective interviews in which it is hoped that participants, through their interaction may provide data and some insights, which may not be revealed through interviews with individuals.

The focus group session is indeed an interview Patton, Focus groups were chosen to provide the means by which to give the teachers and Teachers college lecturers a stronger voice in the study. In the spirit of ideal speech, every participant with the competence to speak and act is allowed to take part in the discourse Habermas, In addition, it was thought that the process of interactive discourse in the focus group may provide a collective strength to help empower the teachers and Teachers college lecturers to overcome reluctance to say the wrong thing or provide an acquiescent response set.

Teachers were able to consider their own views on assessment in the context of others. Focus groups enabled interactions among study participants that enhanced data quality Patton, Krathwohl contends that details and experiences of one individual may stimulate others. Eight groups of six teachers each from the twelve sampled schools constituted the focus groups.

Purposeful sampling was used to select participants in the focus groups. The focus groups enabled the researcher to collect data quickly and information gained in focus groups was then used in subsequent interviews. The researcher made an effort to tactfully give the group members chance to talk as well as to allow for free ideas and opinions, discussions and proceedings were recorded using a tape recorder. Observation gave the researcher an opportunity to collect data on a wide range of behaviours, to capture a great variety of interaction and openly explore the assessment topic.

By directly observing operations the researcher developed a holistic perspective, that is, understood the context within which assessment took place. This was because the researcher was in direct contact with the naturally occurring events, when the teachers were presenting how they made meaning. The observational approach enabled the researcher to see the things that participants were unable to discuss in an interview or focus group.

Furthermore, it was important to observe when and how teachers carried out assessments in their classrooms. This would augment data obtained from focus groups, individual interviews and documentary analysis.

During observation field notes were used to describe what was observed, when, where, and under what conditions. The researcher also used portraits of participants, a reconstruction of dialogue, description of physical setting, accounts of particular events or activities descriptive notes and the researcher personal thoughts reflective notes. The overlapping analysis with data collection does not only give the researcher a head start to analysis, but more importantly, allows the researcher to take advantage of flexible data collection Eisenhardt, The researcher can make adjustments by adding more cases or adjust the interview guide.

Data analyses also continued in an interative manner during the interview stage. Charmaz identified grounded theory when it is underpinned by a constructivist paradigm. Data from interviews, focus groups, observations and document analysis were transcribed.

The researcher read and re-read the textual database in order to discover categories, concepts and their relationships. The researcher made use of in vivo codes during these first stages to explore how respondents saw their social world. Close attention was given to deviant cases, which helped to develop the analysis. Finally, the researcher chose one category and related all the other categories to that category. Creswell suggests developing written summaries as the next step.

The researcher developed a single storyline around which everything else was draped. In developing the storyline the researcher retained the language and syntax of the participants. Visuals were used as adjuncts to the discussion. Validity in qualitative research has to do with description and explanation and whether or not the explanation fits the description. In other words, is the explanation credible?.

In Qualitative research, it is the degree to which qualitative data accurately gauge what the researcher is trying to measure. Some researchers consider the words validity and reliability to be semantically incompatible with qualitative research.

The words truthfulness and consistency respectively, are often used to replace them Andrew et. The issues of validity are vital in establishing the truthfulness and credibility of findings Neuman, ; Validation of the research findings occurs throughout the various stages involved in the study Creswell, The aim of trustworthiness in qualitative enquiry is to support the argument that the inquiry findings are worth paying attention to Lincoln and Guba, Credibility was enhanced through triangulation.

Triangulation is viewed by Suter as essentially a means of cross checking multiple data collection sources to establish validity. In this study, triangulation was undertaken; and data were collected through multiple sources to include focus groups, observations, interviews and document analysis. Triangulation provided both reliability and validity checks by permitting the comparison of themes in the different data groups.

Triangulation also involved the use of a variety of informants. Triangulation was as well achieved by the participation of informants from different organisations so as to reduce the effect of the study to a single institution.

Similar results emerged from different cites, thereby enhancing the credibility of the findings. To further enhance credibility in this study, it was made clear that the participants had the right to participate or withdraw from the research. Participants who participated in individual interviews and focus group sessions involved those who were genuinely willing to take part.

These participants were prepared to offer data freely. During focus groups and interviews, the researcher probed some responses in order to elicit detailed data. All this was done in order to produce credible data.

This helped the researcher to convey the actual situations that were investigated. Furthermore, the researcher also examined previous research studies to assess the degree to which the research findings were congruent to previous studies.

This was aimed at transporting the reader to the setting and to give the discussion an element of shared experiences. The researcher also prolonged her engagement in the field. The researcher observed the setting over a long period of time in order to develop an in depth understanding of the phenomenon.

Observations were made during a period of slightly more than six months. Member checking was another strategy which was employed by the researcher in order to come up with credible information. The researcher took the final report of specific descriptions or themes back to participants and determined whether these participants felt that they were accurate.

The researcher needs to find a way to allow for the participants to review the material one way or another. This assured the respondent that the researcher was accurately noting their thoughts and opinions. In this research, the use of focus groups and individual interviews enhanced dependability. The way the study was carried out was also described in detail to enhance dependability. Such a detailed description allows the reader to assess the extent to which proper research practices have been followed.

This was to allow others to examine the thought process involved in the research and also enabled them to assess the accuracy of the conclusions. In addition, a lecturer who was also a doctorate learner with UNISA served as a peer examiner and provided some meaningful insights into this study. This study described the characteristics of both the participants and primary schools; the data collection methods used as well as the time frame within which data were collected.

The researcher also used thick description. This was done to enable the readers to assess the extent to which the findings may be true of people in other settings. In order to enhance confirmability, the researcher offered a self-critical reflective analysis of the methodology used in research. The self-reflection created an open and honest narrative that was aimed to resonate well with the readers.

The researcher had the responsibility to conduct the investigations and report their findings without harming research participants Keyton, This was done verbally and in writing, by providing information about the study, the research aims and questions, instruments, research procedures, and plans for informed consent by all study participants.

The overall purpose of the study, duration, benefits and risks of the study were also stated. Only voluntary participation by participants was acceptable prior to participation in research. Determining the information needs of contact lens wearers for better education and more support: a qualitative study. Though it is known that it can reduced the mechanical properties of materials, it is a necessity in many … Expand. An analysis of quality of education and its evaluation: A case of Zimbabwean primary schools.

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The effects of the use of a school self-evaluation instrument. Assessment enables teachers to look at areas that students lack mastery and where difficulties areexperienced.

Assessment of students can be in the form of extension record books, remedial books and record of marks. These records help teachers to evaluate the progress of their students as well as evaluating their own teaching methods.

Black and William assert that improvement of learning occurs when teachers use classroom assessment information to establish knowledge, skills and attitudes possessed by their students and incorporate that information in planning for lessons. Read More. Views: Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning.